Psychology: Learning and Memory

Long lasting change in behavior due to experience

Classical Conditioning 

• Ivan Pavlov
• Studies digestion in dogs
• Dogs would salivate before they were given food
• Dogs must have learned to salivate
• This is passive learning (automatic...learner does NOT have tot think)

• First thing you need is a unconditional relationship
• Unconditional stimulus (UCS)-something that elicits a natural, reflexive response
• Unconditional response (UCR)-response to the UCS
• Next you find a neutral stimulus (something that by itself elicits no response)
• You present the stimulus with the UCS a whole bunch of times
• After a while, the body begins to link together the neutral stimulus and the UCS
• We know learning takes place when the previously neutral stimulus elicits a response
• At this point the neutral stimulus is called the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditional response becomes the conditioned response (CR)
• Tricky Fact: We know learning exists because the CS is linked to the UCS
• This is called acquisition
• Acquisition does not last forever
• The moment the CS is no longer associated with the UCS, we have extinction

Timing Matters

• Delayed Conditioning: Present CS, while CS is still there, present UCS
• Trace Conditioning: Present CS, short break, then present UCS
• Simultaneous Conditioning: CS and the UCS are presented at the same time
• Backward Conditioning: UCS is presented, then CS is presented

Spontaneous Recovery: Sometimes, after extinction, the CR still randomly appears after the CS is presented

Generalization: Something is so similar tot he CS that you get a CR

Discrimination: Something so different tot he CS so you do not get a CR

Classical Conditioning and Humans

• John Watson brought classical conditioning to psychology with his Baby Albert Experiment

First-Order Conditioning

• Bell + Meat = Salivation
• Bell = Salivation

Second-Order Conditioning (After first order conditioning has occurred)

• Light + Bell = Salivation
• Light = Salivation

Learned Taste Aversions

• When it comes to food being paired with sickness, the conditioning is incredibly strong
• Even when food and sickness are hours apart
• Food must be salient (noticeable)

Garcia and Koelling Study

• Studies rats and how they make associations
• Some associations seem to be adaptive

Operant Conditioning 

• Edward Thorndike
• Locked cats in a cage
• Behavior changes because of its consequences.
• Rewards strengthen behavior.
• If consequences are unpleasant, the Stimulus-Reward connection will weaken.
• Called the whole process instrumental learning.

B.F. Skinner

• The Mac Daddy of Operant Conditioning
• Nurture guy through and through
• Used a Skinner Box (Operant Conditioning Chamber) to prove his concepts

Reinforces

• A reinforcer is anything that increases a behavior 
• Positive Reinforcement: The addition of something pleasent
• Negative Reinforcement: The removal of something unpleasant
• Two types of negative reinforcement
• Escape learning
• Avoidance Learning
• Getting kicked out of class versus cutting class

Punishment 

• Meant to decrease a behavior
• Positive Punishment: Addition of something unpleasant
• Negative Punishment (Omission Training): Removal of something unpleasant
• Punishment works best when it is immediately done after behavior and if it is harsh

How do we actually use Operant Conditioning?

• Do we work for the subject to deliver the desired behavior?
• Use shaping
• Shaping is reinforcing small steps on the way to the desired behavior

Chaining Behaviors

• Subjects are thought a number of responses successively in order to get a reward

Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcer

• Primary Reinforcer: Things that are in themselves rewarding
• Secondary reinforcer: Things we have learned to value
• Money is a special secondary reinforcer called generalized reinforcer (because it can be traded for just about anything) 

Reinforcement is used to increase a desired behavior 

Punishment is used to decrease an unwanted behavior

Token Economy

• Every time a desired behavior is performed, a token is given 
• They can trade tokens in for a variety of prizes (reinforcers)
• Used in homes, prisons, mental institutions, and schools. 

Premack Principle

• You have to take into consideration the reinforcer used 
• Is the reinforcer wanted...or at least is it more preferable than the targeted behavior

Continuous vs. Partial Reinforcement

• Continuous
• Reinforce the behavior every time the behavior is exhibited
• Usually done when the subject is first learning to make the associations
• Acquisition comes really fast
• But so does extinction
• Partial
• Reinforce the behavior only some of the times it is exhibited
• Acquisition comes more slowly
• But is more resistant to extinction

Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules

• Ration Schedules
• Fixed Ratio
• Provides a reinforcement after a SET number of responses
• Variable Ratio
• Provides a reinforcement after a random number of responses
• Vary hard hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction
• Interval Schedules
• Fixed Interval
• Requiring a SET amount of time before giving the reinforcement
• Variable Interval
• Requires a RANDOM amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement
• Very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction

Observational Learning

• Albert Bandura and his BOBO doll
• We learn through modeling behavior from others
• Observational learning + Operational Conditioning = Social Learning Theory

Latent Learning

• Edward Toleman
• 3 Rat experiment
• Latent means hidden

Insight Learning

• Wolfgang Kohler and his chimpanzees
• Some animal learn through the "ah ha" experience

Memory

Memory: The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

The memory process: encoding, storage, retrieval

• Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system
• Storage: The retention of encoded material over time.
• Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage

Recall vs. Recognition

• With recall-you must identify retrieve the information from your memory (fill int the blank test)
• With recognition-you must identify the target from possible targets (multiple choice test)

Flashbulb Memory: A clear moment of an emotionally significant moment or event

Types of Memory: short-term, sensory, and long-term

• Sensory: The immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system
• Stored for just an instant, and most gets unprocessed
• Short-Term Memory: Memory that holds a few items briefly
• Seven digits (plus of minus 2)
• The info will be stored into long-term or forgotten
• Long-Term Memory: The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory information

Working Memory (Modern Day STM)

• Another way of describing the use of short-term memory
• Has 3 parts:
• Audio
• Visual
• Integration of audio and visual (controls where your attention lies)

2 ways to encoding

• Automatic Processing
• Unconscious encoding of incidental information
• You encode space, time, and word meaning without effort
• Things can become automatic with practice
• Effortful Processing
• Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
• Rehearsal is the most common effortful processing technique
• Through enough rehearsal, what was effortful becomes automatic

Things to remember about encoding

• The next in line effect: We seldom remember what the person has just said or done if we are next
• Spacing effect: We encode better when we study/practice over time
• DO NOT CRAM

Serial Positioning Effect: our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

Types of encoding:

• Semantic Encoding: The encoding of meaning like the meaning of words
• Acoustic Encoding: The encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words
• Visual Encoding: The encoding of picture images

Tricks to encode

• Use imagery: mental pictures
• Mnemonic Devices
• Chunking
• Organizing items into familiar, manageable units
• Often it will occur automatically